Refinement and adoption of permanent raised bed technology for the irrigated maize-wheat cropping system in Pakistan

Sub-objective 1. In the Mardan district of Pakistan identify the soil management practices for permanent raised beds that maximise their productivity and minimise groundwater accession.
The soil management practices that will achieve this objective were instituted with the project's first crop that was sown in September 2004. Both wide and narrow beds, freshly constructed and loose, were installed. The measured 'subbing' (movement of irrigation water into the beds from the furrows) was rapid and complete in these soil conditions. Management practices will attempt to maintain these soil conditions by maximising root retention while renovating the beds with zero-inversion blade ploughings between crops.

Sub-objective 2. Stimulate the adoption of permanent raised bed farming in the Mardan District of Pakistan
Provision of bed farming machinery
Two Cluster Groups of farmers have been established. Each has about twenty farmers and a recognised and respected local leader. Legally binding agreements have been negotiated with each of these groups for them to purchase a bed former/renovator and a seeder through an interest-free repayment scheme. The purchase price for this machinery has been estimated as the cost of machines made in Pakistan. These initial sets of machinery have been made in Australia. Additional sets of machinery will be made in Pakistan.

Three sets of Australian made bed farming machinery were imported into Pakistan in September, 2004. One set was given to each of two Cluster Groups of farmers. The third set was given to the Pakistan research team. The bed formers and seeders were assembled and commissioned at the National Agriculture Research Centre, Islamabad. Some minor modifications were required on the bed formers to enable them to construct and renovate beds to the shape and density needed to improve their condition and productivity. The seeders also needed of two modifications: (a) to allow the seeder to operate satisfactorily on a flat seedbed (i.e. basin irrigation bays), and (b) to allow the disc coulters to be moved without restriction (for changes to crop row spacing) across the front bar of the seeder.

The Pakistan Project Leader, Dr Zahid Hussain, arranged a special ceremony on September 27, at Mardan, for the Australian High Commissioner, Zorica McCarthy, to formally the present the machinery to the two Farmer Groups. A video was made of the presentation ceremony and copies of this video sent to The Australian High Commission in Pakistan, ACIAR, NARC, and the Department of Agriculture WA.

The machinery was demonstrated to the farmers and operators from each Cluster Group were trained in the set-up and operation of both machines. The Farmer Group Leaders and members expressed great appreciation of the size, performance and quality of the Australian made machinery.

Machinery repayment procedure
An Agreement/Memorandum of Understanding on re-payment procedures as well as access to the machinery by farmer members of each Group was negotiated and signed by the Farmer Group Leaders. The Agreement also specifies accounting arrangements by which the financial performance of each Group's machinery use and repayment can be monitored and audited.

First crop of Cluster Groups and Research team
The September delivery of the machinery meant that the November sown Rabi wheat crop was the first crop sown in this project. Ten farmers in one Group and 15 farmers in the other Group sowed their crops on permanent raised beds. Mid-season inspections showed both the research and farmers' crops to be excellent indicating the performance and operation of the machinery was highly effective. Furthermore, comparisons of the crop growth on both treatments showed the crops on permanent raised beds to be superior to those growing in the traditional irrigation basins.

Sub-objective 3. Assess the potential for permanent raised beds to reclaim waterlogged and saline cropland in Western Australia
The Australian work has illustrated substantial cereal yield improvements where waterlogging is removed as the major limitation to plant growth on waterlogged and mildly saline valley floors.

Conclusive evidence of the ability of raised beds to reclaim soils where salinity is the major limitation is much more difficult to obtain, however. Part of this difficulty is the highly variable nature of field salinity. Over the past year a method has been devised that integrates large sets of spatially referenced field salinity data into a single-line graph that illustrates (a) median field salinity; (b) the range of salinity and (c) the proportion of different salinity classes in a field. This analytical method has produced data that show permanent raised beds appear to lose of more salt from the root zone of crops than do normal seedbeds.

Sub-objective 1. In the Mardan district of Pakistan identify the soil management practices for permanent raised beds that maximise their productivity and minimise groundwater accession.
The Rabi wheat (2004-05) and the Kharif maize (2005) crops were the first grown using the Australian-made PRB machinery. The 2004-05 wheat crop was affected by rust and unseasonal waterlogging. Yields were still 'good' and showed a 17% increase in favour of the wide PRBs and 3% for the narrow beds, respectively, the district average for basin irrigated wheat (=control) being 2.9 t/ha. The waterlogging was caused by runoff water from large rains being unable to drain from the fields.

The 2005 maize crop was a hybrid variety sourced from the USA by Cluster Group Leader Nobat Kahn. This variety has the potential to raise yields from ~4.5t/ha to 8.0 to 9.0 t/ha and has generated a lot of farmer interest. Yields on wide beds were 18% above the control (7.1 t/ha), those on narrow beds 4% higher. Irrigation water savings on PRBs were consistent with past trends, showing savings of 28% and 33% for wheat and maize over the control, respectively. In addition, the 'Depletion Replacement' irrigation treatment is indicating additional water savings of 5% to 7% are achievable for crops on PRBs beyond the above water savings when comparing 'Depletion Replacement' irrigation with district practice on PRBs, and further savings are expected as expertise with PRB farming increases.

Research methods to quantify changes in soil conditions, refine irrigation practices and analyse the profitability of PRB farming have been instituted.

Sub-objective 2. Stimulate the adoption of permanent raised bed farming in the Mardan District of Pakistan
Use of PRB bed forming/renovation and no-till seeders
Additional training and supervision was given to achieve near-optimal PRB dimensions and soil conditions. These sought to: (i) standardise 3-point linkages and settings, (ii) increase the length of the gauge wheel shafts on the bed-former; (iii) operate the machines in drier soil, and (iv) apply less pre-seeding irrigation. Such assistance is likely to be needed for 6-8 cropping seasons after the machinery is handed over.

Machinery repayment
The Bank Account for both Cluster Groups to deposit their repayments for the cost of PRB machinery was opened in May, 2005 at Mardan. Repayments from participating farmers are being lodged after harvest, and the scheme is operating as planned. Additional Group income is being obtained from the hire of PRB machinery during the growing season, plus savings from: (i) reduced pre-seeding cultivation and watering, (ii) approximately 50% less seed and fertiliser being needed (PRBs occupy 70% of any given field); and (iii) the virtual removal of the need to thin maize seedlings.

Cluster Group Crop Results
The hybrid maize grown in 2005 was hitherto regarded as too costly. It has nearly doubled maize yields, and farmers are now changing from tobacco to maize on PRBs as a result. Group yields continue to replicate those of the research team and are significantly higher than the average district practices (basin irrigated; traditional, non hybrid maize). The Kahn Cluster Group lined its supply canal and installed tail-water drainage. The lining has sped the arrival of water from the supply line to fields from 6 hours to 6 minutes. The tail water drainage protects against flooding and waterlogging caused by excess rain.

Extension and demonstrations
A Field Day in March 2005 attracted about 40-50 farmers. The results of research into PRB farming, plus the experiences of Cluster Group farmers, were explained. Visitors were able to compare crops grown on PRBs with those grown in normal basins. The research team installed about 10 PRB demonstrations on the land of farmers not in Cluster Groups. Some were as large as 3-5ha in a single basin. The demonstrations are part of a strategy to facilitate the formation of two new Cluster Groups and create a demand for the locally manufactured machinery.

Local manufacture of PRB machinery
A local manufacturer was selected and given a contract to produce two bedformer/renovators and two no-till seeders. These will be paid for by funds accumulated from the repayments made by the first two Cluster Groups. Delivery is scheduled for February-March 2006.

Sub-objective 3. Assess the potential for permanent raised beds to reclaim waterlogged and saline cropland in Western Australia
Monitoring root-zone salinity in a range of seedbeds has shown PRBs leach more salt early in the growing season and suffer the least accumulation at the surface over summer. However, the PRBs, accumulate more salt at the base of their seedbed (20-30cm).

1. Research
Production changes
Average yields for each treatment over the two wheat crops and two maize crops have been compounded by disease outbreaks and water supply difficulties. Notwithstanding these difficulties, the permanent bed treatments have out-yielded the basin treatment in all four cropping seasons. Averaged over the four years the PRB treatments have yielded 8% more than the basin treatment.

When production is viewed in terms of ease with which plants use the applied irrigation water (kg/ha/mm of irrigation), the benefit of PRBs is more clear-cut and consistent. For every mm of water applied the
Wide Beds - depletion replacement irrigation treatment produced 27kg/ha
Wide Beds - district practice irrigation treatment produced 25kg/ha
Narrow Beds - depletion replacement irrigation treatment produced 19kg/ha
Narrow Beds - district practice irrigation treatment produced 20kg/ha
Basin - flood irrigation treatment produced 16kg/ha

The results clearly show that furrow-irrigated PRBs produce substantial yield increases and water savings over traditional flood-irrigated Basins. Both these benefits combine to produce a substantial increase in income and profitability.

Irrigation changes
Because of the easier uptake of water from the more conservatively managed soil, less water is needed by the permanent Wide Bed treatments. In addition to these soil-condition improvements in irrigation, there is clear evidence that irrigation scheduling, which aims to apply only the amount of water used by plants, further reduces the amount of irrigation water required to grow highly productive crops. Relative to the water applied to the district practice of flooding Basins, average savings in water applied to wheat and maize crops on the different types of beds and irrigation practice are:
Wide Beds-depletion replacement irrigation 35%
Wide Beds-district practice irrigation 28%
Narrow Beds-depletion replacement irrigation 4%
Narrow Beds-district practice irrigation 11%

Deep drainage changes
Deep drainage losses, which arise when water drains beyond the root zone of crops causing water tables to rise and waterlogging and salinity to increase, are least under wide permanent raised beds, moderate under narrow bed and greatest under Basins. This assessment is based on the time free-water stands on the basin or in the furrows; the proportion of land on which free-water stands and the hydraulic conductivity of the soil on which the free-water stands. Relative to Basin conditions, deep drainage losses are 50% less for the Narrow Beds and 90% less for the Wide Beds.

Soil changes
Soil that is managed with the least amount of disturbance will eventually have properties that improve water and air movement, root proliferation and plant nutrition. Although these changes take time to become measurable and significant, clear trends have emerged in our data that illustrate these advantages are occurring. Soil conditions in the Wide Beds are better than those in Narrow Beds, which are better than those in the Basins. Soil density is less in the PRBs. Wetting front penetration is greater in the PRBs. Water movement beneath the PRBs treatments is less. Plant water extraction is greater in the PRBs toward the end of the season. PRBs contain more organic matter than the Basins.

2. ADOPTION
Adoption of PRB farming practices has been stimulated by creating groups of farmers to share the use and purchase of PRB bedformers and seeders. In August 2004, two Cluster groups were formed and repayment agreements signed for interest-free, time-payment purchase of Australian-made machinery. The Cluster groups are led by two respected members of the local farming community, Feroz Shah and Nobat Kahn.

A reasonably large number of farmers in each group Crops has used the machines and PRB farming practices to grow crops by every season since August 2004, wheat in 2004/05, maize in 2005, wheat in 2005/06 and maize in 2006 Maize. Currently the 2006/07 wheat crop is being grown. The numbers of farmers using PRBs for Maize cropping in 2005 and 2006 was 15 and 23 in Shah's group, and 23 and 16 in Khan's group. The number of farmers growing wheat on PRBs is less - 12 and 23 in Shah's group and 10 and 8 in Khan's group in 2004/05 and 2005/06.

Average farmer yields have been reasonable but much less than the research yields: The farmers' average maize yield is 4.65t/ha compared to the research yield of 7.93t/ha; and their average wheat yield is 3.09t/ha compared to 4.49t/ha. The reasons for the farmers' lower production are being investigated.

Long term adoption of this technology relies on locally made and serviced machinery being readily available at an acceptable price, but so far local manufacturers have failed to make machines of an acceptable quality and performance. Efforts to source locally made machinery of an acceptable standard are continuing.

This project aims to refine the practice of permanent raised bed (PRB) farming and the approaches used to stimulate its adoption in Pakistan. It follows earlier projects that reduced the water used to grow wheat and maize by 30-50% and increased production of Pakistan varieties of wheat and maize by 10-20% and 30-40%, respectively. Early adoption efforts used Cluster Groups of 20 or so farmers who jointly purchased and shared the necessary machinery - a bedformer and a no-till bed seeder.
The specific challenges this project is attempting to overcome concern: (i) facilitating the manufacture and supply of Pakistan-made PRB machinery and ensuring the PRB seeder has the capability of seeding both field crops and row crops; (ii) developing strategies for the adoption of PRB that are appropriate for particular socio-economic groups of farmers; (iii) widening the range of crops that can be successfully grown on PRB; and (iv) developing and commencing a PRB training program for farmers, service providers and government extension staff.
Two machinery manufacturers have been identified and schooled on the design objectives and manufacturing standards required of PRB machinery. These are Noorani Industries Pty Ltd in Faisalabad and Agritec Pty Ltd in Multan. The Government of Pakistan has placed an order for 10 sets of PRB machinery from Agritech, with more sets likely to be ordered soon..
A seeding mechanism that is capable of seeding both field and row crops has been identified. This mechanism has the required seeding capabilities, plus a design that allows it to be easily attached to the existing seeder frame. This work, which is being undertaken in Australia, has been delayed due to the illness of the collaborating manufacturer, but will be concluded over the next three months.
Data generated from PRB research and farm demonstrations continue to show the technology has substantial benefits. With improved crop varieties (now able to be purchased because of improved cropping profitability) and a longer data collection period, the initial reductions in irrigation water use and increases in productivity from PRBs have diminished slightly, but large operational efficiencies remain. The performance of PRBs relative to Basins over 6 cropping seasons (i.e. 3 cycles of wheat and maize cropping), show consistent and substantial irrigation, production and weed control benefits in favour of 1.3m wide beds.
Key parameters Wide beds Narrow beds Basin
Irrigation reductions 30% 8% Zero
(8%)* (1%) (0%)

Grain yield increases 8% 7% Zero
(3%) (6%) (0%)

Weed burden reductions 60% 35% Zero
(22%) (8%) (0%)
* Numbers in brackets are coefficients of variation
The adaptation of PRB technology to other types of farming is being conducted on farms surrounding the research site at Mardan. These PRB trials have produced production increases and water savings on the following crops: potatoes, sugar beet, tomatoes, lady fingers and water melon. In addition, the Australian designed bed renovation blade plough has been used to substantially reduce the harvest time (labour cost) for potatoes and sugar beet, and increased the quantity and quality of their yields.
The strategy of using 'cluster groups' of farmers to gain adoption of PRB farming, whilst successful, has limitations. An investigation of the socio-economic situations of Pakistani farmers has resulted in the following conclusions. Where ever farms are small (10acres or less) they remain unable to generate enough income to even jointly purchase PRB machinery as a member of a cluster group. For this size farm to adopt PRB farming, service providers need to be the target for PRB training and machinery purchase. For farmers with intermediate-sized farms (10-50acres) both farmers and service providers need to be targeted, and for large farms (>50acres) the farmers themselves should be the target. As the focus of adoption activities moves from small to large farms, the required detail in training courses increases. For these reasons, the curricula of the training courses to be developed will increase in scope and detail as the target group changes from small to large farmers and to service providers and manufacturers.
General PRB training was undertaken during the year. A study tour for Pakistanis involved with PRB farming was conducted in May and June. This brought to Australia a party of 15 that was comprised of farmers, PRB extension and research staff, machinery manufacturers and senior bureaucrats responsible for implementing a national project to stimulate the adoption of this technology across Pakistan. They inspected raised bed farming of vegetables and field crops near Perth and Woodanilling in WA and near Sydney, Griffith and Cowra in NSW.